“I just want to be alright. It’s hard to be ‘okay’ when you’ve seen so much. I saw my city die; I saw my people perish; I saw myself break. I don’t know if I’ll ever be okay but I want that.”
- Sami, a 29-year-old who fled Aleppo for Damascus, then Beirut, Lebanon
Co-written by @lunarlynxlima
The critical issue of the ongoing expansion of urban warfare is a trend anticipated to persist alongside the continual growth of urban populations. While acknowledging the inevitability of warfare, we emphasize the need to illuminate its extensive consequences, especially on civilians. Urban warfare forces individuals to abandon their homes, resulting in enduring displacement even after the conflict ceases. The increasing urbanization trend necessitates heightened awareness of the profound impact of warfare on displaced populations and urban environments. Civilians actively become entangled in the conflict, enduring extended periods of deprivation and grappling with the challenges of siege warfare. Exposure to the aftermath of conflict, coupled with lingering spoils of war, often contributes to the emergence of terrorist organizations. The persistent trauma experienced by civilians reaches an unbearable intensity, underscoring the urgent need to address the enduring consequences of warfare on civilian populations. Furthermore, this review explores preventive measures and strategies to maintain human dignity amidst warfare. By delving into potential solutions, the paper seeks to contribute to a discourse on mitigating the detrimental effects of urban warfare and preserving the well-being and dignity of individuals caught in its midst.
Urban warfare, a grim reality born from the complexities of contemporary conflicts, has emerged as a pervasive and deeply impactful phenomenon. As our world witnesses unprecedented urbanization, cities are becoming not only the battlegrounds but also the collateral victims of armed conflicts. The human toll of urban warfare is immense, extending far beyond the immediate battlefield, leaving indelible scars on individuals, communities, and the urban fabric itself.
In the face of this escalating trend, it becomes imperative to unravel the multifaceted repercussions of urban warfare, particularly on civilian populations. This review delves into the profound effects of urban conflict, shedding light on the struggles faced by individuals forced to abandon their homes and communities. Through a comprehensive exploration of the aftermath of warfare, the paper underscores the enduring displacement, psychological trauma, and societal breakdown that linger long after the guns fall silent.
Drawing from reputable sources such as the “International Review of the Red Cross,” this review transcends the mere mechanics of warfare, focusing instead on the human cost. The narratives of those like Sami, who witnessed their cities crumble, serve as poignant reminders of urban warfare’s profound impact on the human psyche. The displacement of civilians, often compelled to become refugees, opens a new chapter of struggles as they navigate language barriers, unequal treatment, and the challenge of rebuilding shattered lives.
Moreover, this paper addresses the persistent challenges faced by individuals trapped in the crucible of siege warfare, where scarcity becomes a daily companion, and the once cohesive fabric of community life undergoes severe strain. The psychological toll of prolonged hardship intertwines with the scarcity of resources, unraveling social bonds and transforming former neighbors into competitors for the necessities of survival.
Amidst this grim reality, the review also delves into the breach of International Humanitarian Laws (IHL), emphasizing the need for adherence to regulations that preserve the basic dignity inherent in being human. Distinguishing between combatants and civilians in densely populated urban environments poses unique challenges, requiring a delicate balance between advanced technologies and human judgment.
The exploration extends beyond the battlefield, advocating for post-conflict accountability and comprehensive measures such as safe zones and humanitarian corridors to shield civilians from the enduring impacts of urban warfare. By delving into preventive strategies and potential solutions, this paper seeks to contribute to a discourse on mitigating the detrimental effects of urban warfare and preserving the well-being and dignity of individuals caught in its tumultuous midst. Through this comprehensive review, we aim to foster a deeper understanding of the human cost of urban conflict and stimulate dialogue on how best to protect the vulnerable amidst the evolving landscape of modern warfare.
The papers we used to write this review involve the research papers of the journal “International Review of the Red Cross”, a peer-reviewed academic journal produced by the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and published by Cambridge University Press. The Review uses a double-blind, anonymous peer review process. Peer reviewers are identified based on their expertise and can be members of the journal’s Editorial Board, ICRC staff, or external peer reviewers approached because of their specific expertise. We selected this journal due to its reputation in this niche. Unlike the other papers we found, which primarily concentrated on the mechanics of urban warfare, this journal specifically addresses the effects of urban warfare on the cities, inhabitants, and belligerents involved.
Following a war, civilians face a challenging journey beyond the immediate dangers. They are often forced to leave their homes due to lacking necessities such as water, healthcare, sanitation and food. Sadly, many do not make it through displacement, dealing with chaos and shortages.
The struggles do not end after leaving the war zone. Some have to flee their countries and become refugees, a status not warmly welcomed by many nations. Even when they find safety, they encounter difficulties rebuilding their lives: language barriers and unequal treatment make them feel like second-class citizens. Dependence on outside help becomes crucial as these displaced individuals try to start anew.
However, returning home is not always an option. War leaves behind dangerous remnants like landmines and leftover weapons, contributing to the formation of terrorist groups.
When displacement is not an option, individuals face the formidable challenges of enduring the war of attrition or siege warfare. Trapped within their city, they confront the harsh reality of limited supplies and low probabilities of external assistance. The battle for survival intensifies, and the once close-knit community undergoes strain.
In the confined space of siege warfare, the scarcity of resources becomes a daily struggle. With minimal chances of receiving aid from the outside, inhabitants must endure extended periods of deprivation. The shortage of essentials like food, water, and medical supplies creates a precarious environment where each day becomes a test of resilience.
Additionally, the psychological impact of siege warfare exacerbates the situation. As desperation sets in, conflicts among civilians emerge, unraveling the social bonds that once united them. Former friends and neighbors are now perceived as competitors, each vying for the limited resources. This shift in perspective underscores the severity of the conditions and highlights the profound impact of prolonged hardship on interpersonal relationships.
In this challenging environment, the human spirit is tested, and the innate bonds of community are strained to their limits. The struggle for survival takes on new dimensions, revealing the complex dynamics that emerge when communities are subjected to the harsh realities of siege warfare.
Some parties involved in conflicts may breach International Humanitarian Laws (IHL), also known as Laws of War. Acts such as bombing civilian infrastructure, deliberately targeting civilians, neglecting the care of the wounded, mistreating war prisoners, using human shields, internment in concentration camps, and committing heinous acts like murder, torture, and rape against non-combatants are all violations of IHL. These laws are established to uphold the fundamental dignity inherent in being human. Adhering to these regulations is essential for preserving human decency, even in the midst of armed conflicts.
Specific challenges arise in urban warfare scenarios. Traditional practices such as aerial bombardment and heavy artillery shelling in civilian areas remain common in modern warfare, posing increased risks in densely populated urban environments. Cities, being densely inhabited, expose civilians to heightened harm due to the broad destructive impact of explosive weapons. Even when military forces aim to target specific military objectives, civilians and critical infrastructure essential for basic services, such as water, electricity, sanitation, and hospitals, often fall within the blast radius.
Distinguishing between belligerents and civilians in urban warfare is crucial, guided by international humanitarian law (IHL). IHL insists on a clear separation between those actively involved in combat and civilians not partaking in hostilities. In urban settings, where combat and civilian areas closely intertwine, and traditional front lines are often absent, recognizing combatants becomes challenging. The lack of distinct fighter uniforms adds complexity to this task, requiring military forces to employ advanced technologies and intelligence.
The principles of IHL stress the importance of precautionary measures to safeguard civilians. This involves giving advance warnings about military operations, using precise weaponry to minimize unintended harm, and ensuring targeted rather than indiscriminate attacks. While technology aids in distinguishing combatants from civilians, human judgment remains indispensable in urban environments. Rules of engagement, clearly defined and communicated, guide military personnel in the ethical use of force, emphasizing the need to protect non-combatants.
Post-conflict accountability, upheld by entities like the International Criminal Court (ICC), acts as a deterrent against violating the principles of distinction. Beyond the battlefield, creating safe zones, humanitarian corridors, and providing medical assistance are essential measures to shield civilians from the impacts of urban warfare. A comprehensive approach, combining legal frameworks, technological advancements, thorough training, and humanitarian initiatives, is vital to distinguish between fighters and civilians effectively. This ensures preserving human life amidst the challenges posed by urban conflict.
The significance of the ongoing expansion of urban warfare, emphasizing the inevitable connection between armed conflicts and densely populated urban areas. The objectives, as outlined in the introduction, sought to shed light on the struggles faced by individuals caught in the crossfire, emphasizing displacement, psychological trauma, and societal breakdown as integral components of the human cost of urban warfare.
Results are discussed clearly and conciseness, drawing from reputable sources such as the “International Review of the Red Cross.” The impact of urban conflict on civilians, the challenges of distinguishing between combatants and non-combatants, and the breaches of International Humanitarian Laws (IHL) are dissected to provide a nuanced understanding of the complexities inherent in urban warfare. The relevance of these findings is emphasized, connecting them to the broader context of the continually growing urban populations and the escalating trend of urban warfare.
In conclusion, this comprehensive review offers a stark portrayal of the devastating consequences of urban warfare, particularly its far-reaching impact on civilian populations. As the grim reality of urban conflict becomes increasingly prevalent, coupled with the relentless growth of urban areas, there is an urgent need for heightened awareness of the profound human cost at stake.
The review compellingly brings to light the enduring displacement, psychological trauma, and societal breakdown that persist long after the cessation of hostilities. It underscores the pressing need to confront the lasting consequences of warfare on civilians, emphasizing the immediate call to action in mitigating the detrimental effects of urban warfare and safeguarding the well-being and dignity of those ensnared in its chaos.
Through a discerning exploration of preventive measures, the importance of adherence to International Humanitarian Laws (IHL), and the imperative of post-conflict accountability, the review contributes to a vital discourse to unravel the intricacies of urban warfare. The review paints a vivid picture of the complexities inherent in urban conflict scenarios by prioritizing the human cost over the mechanics of warfare and delving into the challenges of distinguishing combatants from civilians in densely populated areas.
Drawing insights from reputable sources such as the “International Review of the Red Cross,” the review advocates for a comprehensive approach that integrates legal frameworks, technological advancements, rigorous training, and humanitarian initiatives. This approach is crucial in effectively distinguishing between fighters and civilians, thereby preserving human life amidst the formidable challenges presented by urban conflict.
In essence, this review deepens our understanding of the ongoing expansion of urban warfare. It articulates a compelling opinion that connects its findings to the broader context of urbanization trends and the evolving landscape of modern warfare. It is a poignant call to action, urging stakeholders to address the immediate and enduring human costs of armed conflicts in densely populated urban environments and actively work to preserve the dignity and well-being of those caught in the crossfire.
Assessing the studies presented in this review is crucial to evaluating their adequacy in reaching conclusions applicable to a larger group. While reputable sources such as the “International Review of the Red Cross” were utilized, it is essential to acknowledge the limitations inherent in the available literature.
Suggestions for future studies are provided, recognizing the need for continued research to delve deeper into the nuances of urban warfare. Exploring the effectiveness of preventive measures, understanding the intricacies of post-conflict accountability, and unravelling the long-term psychological consequences on displaced populations can serve as avenues for future investigation. By acknowledging the limitations and offering suggestions for future research, this review contributes to the ongoing dialogue surrounding the human cost of urban warfare.
I Saw My City Die released on 14 June 2017 captures the experience of civilians living in cities impacted by devastating urban wars in Iraq, Syria and Yemen.
International Committee of the Red Cross. “Urban warfare: Shifting the focus from battlefield to population.” International Committee of the Red Cross, April 27, 2021, Urban warfare: an age-old problem in need of new solutions.
John-Hopkins, M. (2010). Regulating the conduct of urban warfare: lessons from contemporary asymmetric armed conflicts. International Review of the Red Cross, 92(878), 469–493.
Sampaio, A. (2016). Before and after urban warfare: Conflict prevention and transitions in cities. International Review of the Red Cross, 98(901), 71–95.
Andreas Wenger and Simon J. A. Mason (2008). The civilianization of armed conflict: trends and implications, International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 90, No. 872
Davis, D. E. (2009). Non-State Armed Actors, New Imagined Communities, and Shifting Patterns of Sovereignty and Insecurity in the Modern World. Contemporary Security Policy, 30(2), 221–245.